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- Ramon Llull must have actually spent the early years of his life as a young bourgeois, having a basic education to meet his needs and dedicating himself to family business. This vision would not be enough for him to fully understand and embrace the...
- That moment is recalled in De vita coaetanea, where he reflected on the way in which he could serve God and conceived an action plan that outlined three main objectives: in converting unbelievers to Christ, in writing books against the errors of the...
- However, this process separated him from his family. According to De vita coaetanea, after his pilgrimage, he had decided to travel to Paris to study. Nevertheless, his intentions were not supported either by friends or by relatives and he stayed in Majorca. The object and means of his studies have been a topic of discussion. For Johnston it is possible that he studied Latin with private tutors, and he might have attended lectures in the colleges of the mendicant orders established on the island. According to De vita coaetanea, he learned Arabic from a Muslim slave. In any case, Llull does not seem to have received any formal education. This process of instruction would end with a retreat to dedicate himself to contemplation and study on Puig de Randa a mountain in Majorca. His retirement to Puig de Randa would end with a visit to the Cistercian Abbey La Real, where he would write a first version of the Ars, known as Ars compendiosa inveniendi veritatem.
- This learning period would end with a new meditative stay on the mountain for four months until he received a new divine message through a strange priest who blessed him. During this first trip to Montpellier, Llull would suggest that James II found a monastery in Miramar, Majorca, whose main objective would be to teach languages, particularly Arabic, to missionaries.
- The project was approved and the Crown granted the necessary funds to support the monastery, where 13 Franciscan brothers would reside. Llull would reach Paris at the end of and would stay there until the summer of Some references made in De vita point out that his stay in Paris would encourage Llull to revise the structure of this Art, in the light of the difficulties discussed during his public lectures. He stayed there until the autumn of During this stay he publicly presented his comments to the Art and wrote a new, simpler version of this work called Ars inventiva veritatis. When he finished his work in Montpellier, Llull left for Genoa, a city that held great relevance to him, both for his personal relationship with the Spinola family and the events that would later unfold.
- The Crusades are nearing their end, and it is a delicate political moment, among others, for the Genoese who had taken part in the Crusades. Even if the defense of Tripoli and Acre were not important priorities for the papacy, Pope Nicholas IV asked the kings of Europe to support the Crusade, which spawned a series of initiatives to support the reconquest of the Holy Land. Ramon Llull arrived in Rome under these circumstances at the end of , where he writes Liber de passagio, a text preceded by a letter called Quomodo terra sancta recuperari potest, in which Llull took advantage of the political situation to show the relevance of his mission and his Art, linking his work for the first time with the Crusade and the possibility of using military force against the infidels.
- This visit to Rome had no beneficial outcome, and in Llull was back in Genoa, and this time he had the firm intention of traveling to Tunisia to continue his missionary vocation. This trip would be filled with extreme difficulties, mainly due to a profound personal crisis. This crisis, narrated in great detail in De vita, must have started when he was preparing his trip to Tunisia in the spring of and reached its most critical point in May during the celebration of Pentecost. Two significant events must have influenced his mood. Llull had already made the necessary arrangements for his missionary trip, but he started to consider the possibility of being murdered or incarcerated by the infidels.
- This situation caused him to be filled with fear. Consequently, he did not embark on this trip. As soon as the ship that would have have taken him to Tunisia set sail without him, Llull, filled with shame, got sick. This illness would last until the feast of Pentecost, in which Llull was taken to the Church of Saint Dominic. Consequently, Llull resolved to join the Dominican Order at that exact moment but was unable to because the prior was not present at the church. Finally, after a careful process of deliberation and new visions, and considering that his Art had been favorably received by the Franciscan Order, Llull decided to join the Franciscans. With new found enthusiasm, even though he was still ill and feverish, he embarked on the first available ship to Tunisia, but he was promptly stopped by his friends. A few days later, fully recovered, he boarded a new ship and and set sail. Around September he arrived in Tunisia and started his mission. His plan was to establish contact and prompt dialogue with the intellectual circles in the city, using the method proposed in his Art to convince them of the error of their ways.
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The endeavor did not last long, and he was incarcerated. He was expelled from the city and sent to Naples in October This was an extraordinary period for his work. During the two years he would spend in Rome he wrote diverse texts about his Art. However, the two most important works in this period were Desconhort, a poem in which he reflected on his life, his plans, his failures, and his hopes; and Arbor Scientiae, an encyclopedia in which he classified knowledge, which would be very appreciated during the Renaissance. He wrote 17 texts addressed to the scholars in the arts and theologians, which showed his involvement in the academic and political discussions of the University.- After this prolific period, he returns to Majorca but new events will make travel him again. The invasion of Syria by the Mongolian armies lead by Ghazan Khan in and his subsequent advance on the Holy Land raised new hopes among the Crusaders. Filled with enthusiasm by this news, Llull decided to travel to Cyprus during the summer of On his arrival he found out that, a year before, the Mongols had retired once again. His disappointment would not stop him, and he convinced the King of Cyprus to help him convert the Muslim, Nestorian, and Jacobite population of the island. His sermons met with little success, and in he traveled to Port Ayas, in Armenia, where he made another attempt to preach to the infidels.
- Ramon Llull went back to Genoa in May He would spend the following years between Genoa and Montpellier, and he would write more than 18 texts, the majority of which would be directed towards the application of his Art to various disciplines and topics. After this relatively quiet period, Llull set out on a new trip to Africa. De vita narrates this trip in detail. Llull spent most of the time in prison. Instead of seeking to meet intellectuals, as he did on his first trip to Tunisia, right after disembarkation, he went to the main square and harangued passersby and anyone present at the time.
- The crowd was infuriated, and Llull was placed under arrest. The authorities questioned and imprisoned him. He would stay there for six months, receiving visits from sages who sought to convert him to Islam. He was later expelled from the city, but his hardships would not end there. His ship sank on the trip back to Genoa, but Llull and another passenger managed to survive by reaching the coast. He would then remain in Pisa, where he would finish texts he had previously began writing, such as Ars generalis ultima. This was a different visit, not only due to the increasing acceptance of Llullian thought at the University, but also for his involvement in political activities. Clear proof of this situation was the letter of approval signed by professors in the Faculties of Medicine and Theology after hearing a lecture on his Art on February Some of the petitions included were the foundation of language schools, the unification of the military orders, funds for a new Crusade, questions regarding the clothing of the priests, the eradication of Averroism, and a program to preach Catholic faith in synagogues and mosques.
- Some of these petitions were already part of the topics to be discussed and were addressed during the Council. The most important of his requests was the decision to found and promote Hebrew, Arabic, and Chaldean language schools, which was one of the main objectives of the Llullian project. Taking advantage of this treaty, he undertook a project to promote catechesis, naturally joined by Ramon Llull.
- He traveled to Sicily during the summer of After this last trip to African lands, Llull went back to Majorca. He passed away in this island, at the age of 84, after March In recent years it has been emphasized that Llull is a lay thinker Dominguez who is part of a wide movement of lay people engaged in faith, such as the Beguins Ensenyat with whom he has important similarities regarding how to live according to faith. However, the general consensus is that his philosophy is separated from the novelties proposed by scholasticism and Aristotelianism. It suggests that philosophy, theology, and mysticism are not separate or contradictory sources of truth. Rather, they are different aspects of the same process of knowledge. He believes also in the unity of Christianity.
- A unit threatened by the infidels and the schism. His entire philosophical program, says Trias Mercant , is aimed at turning the infidels of the truth of faith and unifying Christians into a dogmatically coherent and morally virtuous community. With this purpose in mind, Llull aims to conceive a universal model to understand reality. As Bordoy points out, on the one hand, this model would allow us to know God in his existence and action, and on the other hand, it would acknowledge the rest of creation as generated by the divinity.
- Activity 12 an elemental trip through Europe continued Ash plume from Mt Cleveland , a stratovolcano in the Aleutian Islands. Ash particles are incorporated into eruption columns as they are ejected from the vent at high velocity. The initial momentum from the eruption propels the column upwards. As air is drawn into the column, the bulk density decreases and it starts to rise buoyantly into the atmosphere. Lateral dispersion is controlled by prevailing winds and the ash may be deposited hundreds to thousands of kilometres from the volcano, depending on eruption column height, particle size of the ash and climatic conditions especially wind direction and strength and humidity. Initially, coarse particles fall out close to source. This is followed by fallout of accretionary lapilli , which is the result of particle agglomeration within the column. These particles can impact on the aviation industry refer to impacts section and, combined with gas particles, can affect global climate.
- Volcanic ash plumes can form above pyroclastic density currents, these are called co-ignimbrite plumes. As pyroclastic density currents travel away from the volcano, smaller particles are removed from the flow by elutriation and form a less dense zone overlying the main flow. Physical Science This zone then entrains the surrounding air and a buoyant co-ignimbrite plume is formed. These plumes tend to have higher concentrations of fine ash particles compared to magmatic eruption plumes due to the abrasion within the pyroclastic density current. Infrastructure is critical to supporting modern societies, particularly in urban areas, where high population densities create high demand for services. These infrastructure networks and systems support urban living, and provide lifeline services upon which we depend for our health , education , transport and social networking. Organizing Atoms and Electrons: The Periodic Table Infrastructure networks and services support a variety of facilities across a broad range of sectors.
- Several recent eruptions have illustrated the vulnerability of urban areas that received only a few millimetres or centimetres of volcanic ash. Costs have been incurred from business disruption, replacement of damaged parts and insured losses. Cambridge IELTS 15 Reading Test 1 Answers Ash fall impacts on critical infrastructure can also cause multiple knock-on effects, which may disrupt many different sectors and services. Volcanic ash fall is physically, socially, and economically disruptive. Volcanic ash can affect both proximal areas and areas many hundreds of kilometres from the source, and causes disruptions and losses in a wide variety of different infrastructure sectors. Impacts are dependent on: ash fall thickness; the duration of the ash fall; the grain size and chemistry of the ash; whether the ash is wet or dry; and any preparedness , management and prevention mitigation measures employed to reduce effects from the ash fall.
- Different sectors of infrastructure and society are affected in different ways and are vulnerable to a range of impacts or consequences. These are discussed in the following sections. Electricity[ edit ] Electrical insulator flashover caused by volcanic ash contamination. If the resulting short-circuit current is high enough to trip the circuit breaker then disruption of service will occur. Ash-induced flashover across transformer insulation bushings can burn, etch or crack the insulation irreparably and will likely result in the disruption of power supply. Master the Periodic Table of Elements 1 Volcanic ash can erode, pit and scour metallic apparatus, particularly moving parts such as water and wind turbines and cooling fans on transformers or thermal power plants. The high bulk density of some ash deposits can cause line breakage and damage to steel towers and wooden poles due to ash loading. Fine-grained ash e. Volcanic ash may also load overhanging vegetation, causing it to fall onto lines.
- Snow and ice accumulation on lines and overhanging vegetation further increases the risk of breakage and or collapse of lines and other hardware. Drinking water supplies[ edit ] Following an eruption, it is very common for the public to hold fears about chemical contamination of water supplies. However, in general, the physical impacts of an ashfall will tend to overwhelm problems caused by the release of chemical contaminants from fresh volcanic ash. Impacts vary according to the type of treatment system. Large water treatment plants[ edit ] Water turbine from the Agoyan Hydroelectric plant eroded by volcanic ash laden water. Groundwater-fed systems are resilient to impacts from ashfall, although airborne ash can interfere with the operation of well-head pumps. Electricity outages caused by ashfall can also disrupt electrically powered pumps if there is no backup generation.
- For surface water sources such as lakes and reservoirs, the volume available for dilution of ionic species leached from ash is generally large. The elements iron , manganese and aluminium are commonly enriched over background levels by volcanic ashfall. Mark Twain Media Inc Publishers Worksheets Answers These elements may impart a metallic taste to water, and may produce red, brown or black staining of whiteware, but are not considered a health risk. Volcanic ashfalls are not known to have caused problems in water supplies for toxic trace elements such as mercury Hg and lead Pb which occur at very low levels in ash leachates. A further point to note is that drinking-water treatment commonly involves the addition of treatment chemicals such as aluminium sulfate or ferric chloride as flocculants , lime for pH adjustment, chlorine for disinfection and fluoride compounds for dental health.
- The physical impacts of ashfall can affect the operation of water treatment plants. In most cases, changes in turbidity caused by suspended ash particles will be within the normal operating range of the plant and can be managed satisfactorily by adjusting the addition of coagulant. Ash can enter filtration systems such as open sand filters both by direct fallout and via intake waters. In most cases, increased maintenance will be required to manage the effects of an ashfall, but there will not be service interruptions.
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The final step of drinking water treatment is disinfection to ensure that final drinking water is free from infectious microorganisms. As suspended particles turbidity can provide a growth substrate for microorganisms and can protect them from disinfection treatment, it is extremely important that the water treatment process achieves a good level of removal of suspended particles. Activity 12 an elemental trip through Europe I n - ssjalangirlscollege. Levels of treatment vary widely, from rudimentary systems with coarse screening or settling followed by disinfection usually chlorination , to more sophisticated systems using a filtration step.Activity 12 An Elemental Trip Through Europe Worksheet Answers | Medicoguia.com
Unless a high quality source is used, such as secure groundwater, disinfection alone is unlikely to guarantee that drinking water is safe from protozoa such as Giardia and Cryptosporidium , which are relatively resistant to standard disinfectants and which require additional removal steps such as filtration. Volcanic ashfall is likely to have major effects on these systems. High levels of turbidity are very likely to interfere with disinfection treatment and doses may have to be adjusted to compensate.- It is essential to monitor chlorine residuals in the distribution system. Rainwater-fed supplies[ edit ] Many households, and some small communities, rely on rainwater for their drinking water supplies. Roof-fed systems are highly vulnerable to contamination by ashfall, as they have a large surface area relative to the storage tank volume. Volcanic ash - Wikipedia In these cases, leaching of chemical contaminants from the ashfall can become a health risk and drinking of water is not recommended.
- Prior to an ashfall, downpipes should be disconnected so that water in the tank is protected. A further problem is that the surface coating of fresh volcanic ash can be acidic. Unlike most surface waters, rainwater generally has a very low alkalinity acid-neutralising capacity and thus ashfall may acidify tank waters. This can be a particular problem if there are lead-head nails or lead flashing used on the roof, and for copper pipes and other metallic plumbing fittings. Water demand[ edit ] During ashfall events, large demands are commonly placed on water resources for cleanup and shortages can result. Shortages compromise key services such as firefighting and can lead to a lack of water for hygiene, sanitation and drinking. Municipal authorities need to monitor and manage this water demand carefully, and may need to advise the public to utilise cleanup methods that do not use water e.
- Lv 4 5 years ago My kids both did europe that way They both spent 2 summers their one together one with their girl friends now wives. They did the hostels both with the two guys and with their GFs and liked them. At most they could get private rooms but they cost more. Hotels are expensive but in Greece and Prague the splurged and loved it. I've seen pics and it looks like a Christmas card. The friendliness of the people would make it even more enticing. Yes, I've spent a week in Salzburg, but it was June ' Hotter than heck but still had a great time. You can sign in to vote the answer. Or go north Latvia - Lithuania - Estonia Which is much more affordable. Charpatian Mountains during winter There are train-travels. You could choose a "travel zone" and see many places. Get your answers by asking now. Ask Question Join Yahoo Answers and get points today.
- Navigators use compasses to travel on both land and sea. In this activity, we make a floating magnetic compass useful for short distance travel. Latitude and Longitude Ocean explorers not only needed to know their direction of travel but they also needed to know their current position on a map. Maps use latitude and longitude coordinates to identify unique locations Fig. Parallels of latitude are imaginary reference lines that form complete circles around the earth parallel to the equator and parallel to each other. Meridians of longitude are imaginary half-circles running from the North Pole to the South Pole.
- These divisions of the equatorial circle are used to label the meridians. Meridians are numbered east and west from the prime meridian Fig. Lines of latitude and longitude form an imaginary global grid system. Any point on the globe can be located exactly by specifying its latitude and longitude. For a review of the concepts of latitude and longitude see Locating Points on a Globe. Determining Latitude and Longitude One instrument that can help to determine latitude is a sextant.
- A sextant is a navigational tool used to measure the angle that a celestial body, such as the sun, moon, or a star, makes with the horizon Fig. The sextant operates on the principle that if two objects can be viewed simultaneously with two mirrors, then the angle reflected by the two mirrors is the angle between the two objects Fig. This angle is an estimate of the latitude of the observer, adjusted for the time and date of the instrument reading. If the sextant is being used to observe the sun, filters are put in place to avoid eye damage. Longitude was more difficult for early explorers to estimate because it required an accurate chronometer, or timekeeping device, which could be used to compare the time on the ship to the time at a fixed point.
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As explorers moved west or east, the sun rose earlier or later, and set correspondingly earlier or later, affecting the perceived time of day. For early explorers, the most accurate timekeepers relied on pendulums, which were useless on swaying ships, so longitude had to be estimated using a series of complex equations based on lunar observations. More often, however, early explorers estimated longitude by a technique called dead reckoning. Estimating speed can be as simple as noticing the time it takes bubbles to pass along the length of the boat.- But, to be more precise, ships often used a chip log. A chip log was a weighted board attached to a uniformly knotted line Fig. When thrown overboard, the chip log stayed in roughly the same place while the knotted line unspooled from the boat for a set period of time such as the time needed for sand in an hourglass to move from one side to the other. This method of determining location does not take into account the effects of currents, wind, or inaccuracies in the measurement of time. Captain William Bligh and 18 crewmembers loyal to him were set adrift in a large rowboat. After a brief stop in Tonga, Captain Bligh was able to use the method of dead reckoning to navigate across more than km of ocean, to the island of Timor in Southeast Asia in just 44 days Fig. He accomplished this impressive feat using only a compass and simple sextant. Amazingly, all crewmembers survived except for one, who was murdered by native islanders early in the journey. The use of dead reckoning declined when John Harrison, a British clock maker, developed the first chronometer that kept accurate time at sea.
- This technical achievement revolutionized naval navigation as it allowed for accurate longitude positioning. By the early 19th century, chronometers had become cheap enough to be utilized on almost all voyaging ships. Veteran Polynesian voyagers rely on their knowledge of the stars, waves, weather, and wildlife to travel long distances across the ocean. New navigators gained these skills by carefully observing nature and learning from their elders. Polynesians did not have a written language so information was passed down orally from generation to generation. Unfortunately, by the midth century a lot of this knowledge was lost, following contact with the west and changing traditions. Since then, traditional Polynesian voyaging has undergone a revitalization across the Pacific ocean basin.
- The dancer Physical requirements Dancers are not just performing artists; their bodies are also the instruments through which the art is created. The quality of this art, therefore, necessarily depends on the physical qualities and skills that dancers possess. Nearly all professional dancers start training at a young age in order to shape and develop their bodies correctly. Strength is built up in the right muscles, for example, and the bone-connecting ligaments on which flexibility of the joints is so dependent are lengthened early before they begin to harden. As well as strength and mobility, a good dancer must also possess great coordination the ability to work different parts of the body together , a highly developed kinesthetic awareness in order to know and control the position and state of the body , control over weight and balance in motion, a developed awareness of space, a strong sense of rhythm, and an appreciation of music.
- Particularly in dramatic dance, the dancer must be able to project movement clearly and make its expressive qualities intelligible to the audience. Grace, fluidity, and harmony of body are also frequently desired in the dancer, as is physical beauty, but these are subjective qualities that differ from one culture to another and change according to fashion. The 21st-century physical ideal of the ballerina—long-limbed and slender—is quite different from the late 19th-century preference for a more rounded figure. The importance of training Though modern avant-garde choreographers sometimes work with untrained dancers to take advantage of the qualities of natural, untutored movement, most dancers in the West are trained either in a strict technique based on classical ballet or in techniques introduced by the 20th-century modern-dance choreographers Martha Graham and Merce Cunningham. Other kinds of dance, such as jazz or tap , are usually taught in conjunction with these techniques.
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Training generally begins early, between 8 and 12 years of age for girls and 14 for boys, although some ballet dancers and many more modern dancers begin later. Ballet training closely follows the rules published in by the Italian dancing master Carlo Blasis in his Code of Terpsichore. Blasis advocated at least three hours of dance classes a day, involving exercises that progressively developed different parts of the body.- Wendy Whelan, Many dance movements make strenuous and unnatural demands on the joints, muscles, and tendons, and it is easy to strain or damage them if the body is not properly maintained. Some bodies are more suitable for training than others, and in the West many aspiring dancers undergo extensive medical scrutiny to ensure that they have no weaknesses or disabilities, such as a weak or crooked spine, that would make them unfit for dancing. While ballet dancers rarely use the torso, African dancers and certain modern dancers have to be extraordinarily supple in the torso and pelvis in order to execute the ripples, twists, and percussive thrusts that their particular dances require. Indian classical dancers, while developing great strength and flexibility in the legs, must also achieve great control over the face and neck muscles and flexibility and control in the joints and muscles of the hands.
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